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Designated November 19, 1999, at the Alexander Fleming Laboratory Museum in London, U.K. Department of Agriculture National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research in Peoria, Ill., and the five American pharmaceutical companies that contributed to penicillin production research during WWII: Abbott Laboratories, Lederle Laboratories (now Pfizer, Inc.), Merck & Co., Inc., Chas. The introduction of penicillin in the 1940s, which began the era of antibiotics, has been recognized as one of the greatest advances in therapeutic medicine. The discovery of penicillin and the initial recognition of its therapeutic potential occurred in the United Kingdom, but, due to World War II, the United States played the major role in developing large-scale production of the drug, thus making a life-saving substance in limited supply into a widely available medicine. Alexander Fleming’s Discovery of Penicillin Penicillin Research at Oxford University Penicillin Production in the United States during WWII Increasing the Yield of Penicillin U.S. Pharmaceutical Companies Support Production Scaling-up Production Penicillin, WWII and Commercial Production Further Reading Landmark Designation and Acknowledgments Cite this Page. Penicillin heralded the dawn of the antibiotic age. Before its introduction there was no effective treatment for infections such as pneumonia, gonorrhea or rheumatic fever.

Hospitals were full of people with blood poisoning contracted from a cut or a scratch, and doctors could do little for them but wait and hope. Antibiotics are compounds produced by bacteria and fungi which are capable of killing, or inhibiting, competing microbial species.

This phenomenon has long been known; it may explain why the ancient Egyptians had the practice of applying a poultice of moldy bread to infected wounds.

But it was not until 1928 that penicillin, the first true antibiotic, was discovered by Alexander Fleming, Professor of Bacteriology at St. Returning from holiday on September 3, 1928, Fleming began to sort through petri dishes containing colonies of Staphylococcus, bacteria that cause boils, sore amoxicillin for inner ear infection throats and abscesses.

It was dotted with colonies, save for one area where a blob of mold was growing. The zone immediately around the mold—later identified as a rare strain of Penicillium notatum—was clear, as if the mold had secreted something that inhibited bacterial growth. Fleming found that his "mold juice" was capable of killing a wide range of harmful bacteria, such as streptococcus, meningococcus and the diphtheria bacillus. He then set his assistants, Stuart Craddock and Frederick Ridley, the difficult task of isolating pure penicillin from the mold juice. It proved to be very unstable, and they were only able to prepare solutions of crude material to work with. Fleming published his findings in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology in June 1929, with only a passing reference to penicillin's potential therapeutic benefits.

At this stage it looked as if its main application would be in isolating penicillin-insensitive bacteria from penicillin-sensitive bacteria in a mixed culture. This at least was of practical benefit to bacteriologists, and kept interest in penicillin going.

Others, including Harold Raistrick, Professor of Biochemistry at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, tried to purify penicillin but failed. It was Howard Florey, Ernst Chain and their colleagues at the Sir William Dunn School of Pathology at Oxford University who turned penicillin from a laboratory curiosity into a life-saving drug. Their work on the purification and chemistry of penicillin began in earnest in 1939, just when wartime conditions were beginning to make research especially difficult. To carry out a program of animal experiments and clinical trials the team needed to process up to 500 liters a week of mold filtrate.

They began growing it in a strange array of culture vessels such as baths, bedpans, milk churns and food tins. Later, a customized fermentation vessel was designed for ease of removing and, to save space, renewing the broth beneath the surface of the mold.

A team of "penicillin girls" was employed, at ?2 a week, to inoculate and generally look after the fermentation.

In effect, the Oxford laboratory was being turned into a penicillin factory. Meanwhile, biochemist Norman Heatley extracted penicillin from huge volumes of filtrate coming off the production line by extracting it into amyl acetate and

then

He had scratched the side of his mouth while pruning roses, and had developed a life-threatening infection with huge abscesses affecting his eyes, face, and lungs. Penicillin was injected and within days he made a remarkable recovery. But supplies of the drug ran out and he died a few days amoxicillin for swimmers ear later.

Better results followed with other patients though and soon there were plans to make penicillin available for British troops on the battlefield. War-time conditions made industrial production of penicillin difficult.

A number of British companies, including Glaxo (now GlaxoSmithKline) and Kemball Bishop, a London firm later bought by Pfizer, took up the challenge. Penicillin Production in the United States during WWII.

Substantial amounts of penicillin would be needed for the extensive clinical trials required to confirm the promise of the early results and to provide adequate supplies of the drug for therapeutic use if it did live up to its potential. Florey recognized that large-scale production of penicillin was probably out of the question in Britain, where the chemical industry was fully absorbed in the war effort.

With the support of the Rockefeller Foundation, Florey and his colleague Norman Heatley traveled to the United States in the summer of 1941 to see if they could interest the American pharmaceutical industry in the effort to produce penicillin on a large scale. Yale physiologist John Fulton helped to put his British colleagues in touch with individuals who might be able to assist them in their goal. They were referred to Robert Thom of the Department of Agriculture, a foremost mycologist and authority on the Penicillium mold, and eventually to the Department's Northern Regional Research Laboratory (NRRL) in Peoria, Illinois, because of the expertise of its Fermentation Division. This contact proved to be crucial to the success of the project, as the NRRL was a key contributor of innovations that made large-scale production of penicillin possible.