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Some cells which secrete TGF- ? also have receptors for this cytokine, a phenomenon known as autocrine signaling.

Cancer cells increase production of TGF- ? , which also affects the surrounding cells.

The Rho GTPases are involved in numerous signal transduction pathways and act as regulators of the actin cytoskeleton, cell motility, and transcription.

They are associated with progression to malignancy in several types of cancer.

The Rho GTPases are molecular switches which remain inactive when GDP bound and active when GTP bound, and they expand their signals through interaction with numerous downstream signaling effectors [62–64]. In this sildenafil 20 mg walgreens way it is possible that sildenafil affects oncogenesis.

[65] suggested that sildenafil inhibits RhoA/Rho kinase-dependent functions in the pulmonary artery through enhanced RhoA phosphorylation and cytosolic sequestration by GDP.

The inhibition of intracellular events downstream of RhoA thus participates in the beneficial effect of sildenafil in pulmonary hypertension. [66] described a patient with multiple sclerosis who developed severe PAH after treatment with IFN- ? -1a.

Sildenafil reversed the detrimental effect of IFN- ? on the cardiovascular system.

Reduced NO production is correlated with poor wound healing in diabetic patients. Sildenafil improved the production of NO in diabetic subjects. Chronic administration of sildenafil in diabetic patients was associated with an increase in nitrite/nitrate levels and improved markers of vascular inflammation with a decrease of endothelin-1, IL-6 level, lower expression of integrins, including intracellular adhesion molecules (ICAM), and vascular adhesion molecules (VCAM). Furthermore, the effect of sildenafil therapy was sustained after one month from withdrawal of the drug [67, 68].

A growing body of evidence shows that sildenafil exerts immunomodulatory effects. Its positive action was demonstrated in treating severe autoimmune diseases and cancer. In addition, anti-inflammatory and antiaggregation effects of sildenafil have also been reported.

In tumor-bearing mice, the inhibition of PDE5 activity with sildenafil prolonged the survival of the animals through augmentation of antitumor immunity. Daily sildenafil treatment from EAE symptom onset prevented further clinical deterioration and improved neurogenesis. Sildenafil decreased the levels of proinflammatory cytokines, including TNF- ? , IL-1, and reduced NK cells activity, and enhanced the action of regulatory T cells.

Sildenafil markedly inhibited iROS production induced by LPS. Type 5 phosphodiesterase (PDE5) inhibitor increased endothelial cell cGMP and promoted angiogenesis by increasing the expression of VEGF.

De novo blood vessel formation is essential for embryonic vascular development and for postnatal vascular homeostasis and wound healing.

Thus, the available data suggest that sildenafil could find use in the treatment of autoimmune, neurodegenerative, and cardiovascular diseases, as well as recurrent abortions.

However, the potential immunomodulatory effects of sildenafil in humans remain to be confirmed. B-CLL: B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia cGMP: Cyclic guanosine monophosphate ED: Erectile dysfunction GMP: Guanosine monophosphate IL: Interleukin NKT: Natural killer T-cells NO: Nitric oxide NOS: Nitric oxide synthase PDE-Is: Phosphodiesterase inhibitors PDEs: Phophodiesterases PKG: Protein kinase G ROS-Nrf2: Reactive oxygen species-nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2 SC: Sildenafil citrate sGC: Soluble guanylate cyclase TGF- ? : Transforming growth factor- ? TNF- ? : Tumor necrosis factor- ? Treg: Lymphocyte T regulatory cells. The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

This work was supported by a grant from National Science Centre, Poland (NSC), no.

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