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Similar rationale could be used to design drugs to shut off genes responsible for causing cardiovascular diseases and Alzheimer.

Our genes are units of inheritance and carry instructions to make proteins, and when the proteins fold, they become reactive and carry out a specific function.

Hundreds of proteins interact to make a cell, and millions of cells interact to make a tissue.

Hundreds of tissues interact to make an organ, and several organs interact to make a human being.

The instructions to make tissues are written in our genes. A defected tissue could be identified by looking at the mutation in the genes. We can prevent diseases at a very early stage of our lives. By sequencing a fertilized egg, the genotype, we could identify the mutations responsible for future diseases in tissues, the phenotype. If a patient has a family history of a specific disease, to prevent future generation from inheriting the disease, it is best advice for such families to have conception by in vitro fertilization after making sure that the fertilized egg is free from all abnormal mutations responsible for causing the disease.

Our entire genome, the book of our life, is written in four nucleotides, and they are A (adenine), T (thiamine), G (guanine), and C (cytosine). The chain of these nucleotides forms a double-stranded string of nucleotides, one strand is inherited from our mother and another from our father, running in opposite directions called the DNA (deoxyribonucleotide). According to Francis Crick’s Central Dogma [3], double-stranded DNA is transcribed into a single-stranded RNA which is translated in the ribosome into proteins. The discovery of the double helical structure of DNA explained how the information to create life is stored, replicate, evolved, and passed on to the next generation.

This discovery opened a new world order of ideas and buried the old explanation of the magical mystical appearance of life on Earth.

The double-stranded DNA explained that the essence of life is information and the information is located on these four nucleotides.

Every set of three nucleotides on the mRNA forms a codon which codes for a specific amino acid.

The four-letter text of nucleotides forms a three-letter codon which codes for an amino acid.

There are 64 different combinations of codons which codes for all 20 amino acids. Sequencing human genome identifies the number of nucleotides and the order in which they are arranged.

Less than 2% of our genome contains regulatory region, a piece of DNA, which controls the function of genes.

More than 300 regulatory regions have been identified.

More than 98% of our genome contains non-coding region used to be called the junk DNA which makes up to 60% of our entire genome.

The non-coding regions contains repetitive piece of DNA, which is tightly packed and mostly remain silent. The sequencing of this region showed that the non-coding region is the part of viruses and bacteria picked up by our genome during the millions of years of our evolutionary process. During bacterial or viral infection, the non-coding DNA could unfold transcribing into RNA resulting into hazardous protein which could create havoc for our health. As I said above, out of four-letter text, that is A-T and G-C, and three letters code for an amino acid called the codon. The starting codon in a gene is the codon AUG (instead of T nucleotide, we use U nucleotide because thiamin is converted to more water-soluble uracil), which codes for amino acid methionine.

The starting codon is followed by a series of hundreds of codons which codes for different amino acids in different species.

There are three stop codons, and they are AUG, UGG, and UGA. The longest chain is in a gene of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, a neurological disease whose chain extends to two and a half million codons. Once a gene is identified, using restriction enzymes, like EcoR1, we can cut, paste, and copy all genes individually making a restriction site map. Once a single gene is isolated, we could compare the sequence of this gene amoxicillin antibacterial with the Thousand Genome Project to identify abnormal mutation responsible for the disease and design drugs to shut off that gene.

Let us examine the sequence of the genome of human egg and sperm. An egg contains a single strand of 164 million nucleotide bases carrying 1144 genes, while the human sperm contains a single strand of 59 million nucleotide bases carrying 214 genes.

When comparing the sequence of an egg or sperm with sequence of the 1000 eggs and sperms of different people, we notice changes.

These variants are mutations caused by radiations, chemical and environmental pollution, viral infection, or genetic inheritance resulting in rare diseases.

Once a bad gene is identified, sequencing will identify the abnormal nucleotide.

Now, we can design drug to bind to this nucleotide and shut off its function. We present in the “Cancers” section below a novel drug design.

Using aziridines and carbamate how we design drugs to shut off these genes to restore health. Although we are allowed to shut off and remove bad genes, we are not allowed to introduce good genes in the egg and sperm to enhance the abilities of egg and sperm because modification introduced in the egg and sperm will pass on to the next 1000 generations.

For this reason, germ line gene therapy is forbidden in all countries.

Are we to determine the quality of life of individuals who will not even be born before the century is over? We cannot design novel drugs unless we find the abnormal mutations responsible for causing that disease.

The reading of the total genetic information that makes us human is called the human genome.

The reading of the entire book of our life is authorized by the US Congress under The Human Genome Project. It will answer the most fundamental question we have asked ourselves since the dawn of human civilization.

What is the nature of memory and our consciousness?

Our development from a single cell to a complete human being? The biochemical nature of our senses and the process of our aging? The scientific basis of our similarity and dissimilarity: similarity is that all amoxicillin online without prescription living creatures from a tiny blade of grass to the mighty elephant including man, mouse, monkey, mosquitos, and microbes are all made of the same chemical building blocks, yet we are so diverse that no two individuals are alike even identical twins are not exactly identical, they grow up to become two separate individuals. In 1990, US Congress authorized 3 billion dollars to NIH to decipher the entire human genome under the title, “The Human Genome Project.” We found that our genome contains six billion four hundred million nucleotide bases, half comes from our father and another half comes from our mother.

Less than 2% of our genome contains genes which code for proteins.

The other 98% of our genome contains switches, promoters, terminators, etc. The 46 chromosomes present in each cell of our body are the greatest library of the Human Book of Life on planet Earth. The chromosomes carry genes which are written in nucleotides. Before sequencing (determining the number and the order of the four nucleotides on a chromosome), it is essential to know how many genes are present on each chromosome in our genome.

The Human Genome Project has identified

not

Chromosome-3 contains 214 million nucleotide bases and carries 1381 genes.

Chromosome-4 contains 203 million nucleotide bases and carries 1024 genes. Chromosome-5 contains 194 million nucleotide bases and carries 1190 genes. Chromosome-6 contains 183 million nucleotide bases and carries 1394 genes.

Chromosome-7 contains 171 million nucleotide bases and carries 1378 genes. Chromosome-8 contains 155 million nucleotide bases and carries 927 genes. Chromosome-9 contains 145 million nucleotide bases and carries 1076 genes. Chromosome-10 contains 144 million nucleotide bases and carries 983 genes.

Chromosome-11 contains 144 million nucleotide bases and carries 1692 genes. Chromosome-12 contains 143 million nucleotide bases and carries 1268 genes. Chromosome-13 contains 114 million nucleotide bases and carries 496 genes. Chromosome-14 contains 109 million nucleotide bases and carries 1173 genes. Chromosome-15 contains 106 million nucleotide bases and carries 906 genes. Chromosome-16 contains 98 million nucleotide bases and carries 1032 genes. Chromosome-17 contains 92 million nucleotide bases and carries 1394 genes. Chromosome-18 contains 85 million nucleotide bases and carries 400 genes. Chromosome-19 contains 67 million nucleotide bases and carries 1592 genes.

Chromosome-20 contains 72 million nucleotide bases and carries 710 genes.

Chromosome-21 contains 50 million nucleotide bases and carries 337 genes. Chromosome-22 contains 56 million nucleotides and carries 701 genes. Finally, the sex chromosome of all female called the (X) contains 164 million nucleotide bases and carries 1141 genes.

The male sperm chromosome contains 59 million nucleotide bases and carries 255 genes. If you add up all genes in the 23 pairs of chromosomes, they come up to 26,808 genes and yet we keep on mentioning 24,000 genes needed to keep us function normally.

As I said above, a gene codes for a protein, not all 24,000 genes code for proteins. It is estimated that less than 19,000 genes code for protein.

Because of the alternative splicing, each gene codes for more than one protein.

All functional genes in our body make less than 50,000 proteins which interact in millions of different ways to give a single cell. Millions of cells interact to give a tissue, hundreds of tissues interact to give an organ, and several organs interact to make a human. Not all genes act simultaneously to make us function normally.

Current studies show that a minimum of 2000 genes are enough to keep human function normally; the remaining genes are backup support system and they are used when needed.

The non-functional genes are called the pseudo genes.

For example, millions of years ago, humans and dogs shared some of the same ancestral genes; we both carry the same olfactory genes, only in dogs, they still function to search for food. Since humans do not use these genes to smell for searching food, these genes are broken and lost their functions, but we still carry them. Recently, some Japanese scientists have activated the pseudo genes; this work may create ethical problem in future as more and more pseudo genes are activated.

Nature has good reasons to shut off those pseudo genes. Next, we converted the analog language biology to the digital language of computer, that is, from A-T and G-C nucleotides to numbers 0 and 1. Now, we can write a program and design a computer to read the book of life faster and faster.

Today, we can read our entire genome in 1 day at a cost of 1000 dollars.

We can also upload our digitized genome on the computer.

Once uploaded on the Website, our genome could travel with the speed of light to anywhere in the world or in the universe.

Once

the

On the other hand, we could identify bad gene and design drugs to shut off bad genes to prevent diseases. This starts a new era of genomic medicine based on differences of the genetic make of each individual. The double-stranded DNA in the normal cell, the autosome, is retained with

the

On the other hand, the DNA in a germ line cell lives on for generations. Through egg and sperm cells, the DNA is passed on to the future generations, that is, the information is passed on from parents to the fetus in different combinations for generation after generation.

A sperm, the Y-chromosome, is made of a single string of 59 million nucleotide bases and carry 231 genes, while an egg, the X-chromosome, is made of a single string of 164 million nucleotide bases and carry 1144 genes.

Once the egg is fertilized, the nucleotides and genes are exchanged (recombination occurs) among nucleotides forming a double-stranded DNA.

During replication, each string separates and picks up the complimentary nucleotide bases (such as nucleotide A picks up T and G picks up C) from the nucleotide pool and forms two double-stranded DNA forming two daughter cells. The two strands of each chain run in opposite directions. Reactive medicine is the treatment of a disease after its symptoms are revealed and the full-blown disease appears. During your annual health checkup, your physicians order a number of tests.

For example, if you are a 40-year-old male and go to the doctor, he prescribed a PSA (prostate-specific antigen) test for the early signs of prostate cancer, if you are a 40-year-old woman, your doctor prescribes the mammograms for the early signs of breast cancer, and if you are 50 years old, he prescribes the colonoscopy for colon cancer.

Once the symptoms are revealed, the standard treatment is prescribed for a disease such as surgery, radiations treatment, or chemotherapy. The treatment after the appearance of its symptoms is considered as the reactive medicine. A specific example is as follows: suppose your physician finds that you are sick with high temperature and high blood pressure, he prescribes Plavix a medicine of standard treatment for lowing your blood pressure and temperature.

You receive treatment after your illness is diagnosed.

Plavix is a useful drug for treating high blood pressure, but it does not respond in 15% of the patients. In treating reactive medicine, we do not really know what is going on in the body of those patients until after sequencing their genome, and identifying the abnormal mutation in their genetic makeup and then designing drugs to treat those patients is the true genomic medicine.

Predictive medicine, on the other hand, is the treatment of a disease long before its onset by examining your normal genomic script of the effected organ from your book of life and comparing its entire script with the genome of a sick patient.

Spelling errors in our genome are the mutations responsible for causing diseases.

The difference between the reactive medicine and the predictive medicine is whether you have the disease or you will come down with the disease because you are carrying a mutation which could become activated and make you sick. When comparing genome sequences, we find differences called variants.