Amoxicillin a45 uses

By killing the bacteria, the mold had created a bacteria-free circle around itself. He was so inspired by the presence of the bacterial free zone that he conducted further experiment and found that the

mold

800

The discovery of penicillin [1] was followed by a host of new antibiotics such as streptomycin, neomycin, kanamycin, paromomycin, apramycin, tobramycin, amikacin, netilmicin, and gentamicin and dozens of their derivatives which wipeout Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics in agriculture resulted in the bacterial resistance.

For example, farmers overuse the antibiotics in food-producing animals not only to kill the bacteria in cows, goat, and chicken farms but also use to promote growth in these animals exposing excessive amount of antibiotics residues to humans in their food.

We developed a spectroscopic method [2] to detect their residue in PPT (parts per trillion) to provide safe food for consumption.

We broke the genetic code and unlocked the secrets of life. Now, we are ready to manipulate life not only to clean up our environmental pollution but also to produce new food, new fuel, and new medicine to treat every disease known to mankind.

We also succeeded in increasing human lifespan beyond 60 to 70 years.

We read the total genetic information that makes the human life; we completed the Human Genome Project.

Next, we sequenced the human genome, that is, we read the number of nucleotides and the order in which they are arranged.

With advancement in science and technology, we sequenced the human genome cheaper and faster using the next-generation sequencers such as nanopore. We are able to compare the reference sequence of every gene with the 1000 copies of the same gene from different individuals to identify differences. If the good variant came from the pancreas, it produces insulin which is used to treat diabetes.

If the variant came from an abnormal mutated gene, it is responsible for causing common diseases such as cancers, cardiovascular diseases, or Alzheimer.

Soon, we will prepare a variant map of the entire genome to identify all 6000 diseases; then, we can design drugs to treat these diseases by shutting off their genes. The Thousand Genome Project will help us single out the rare mutation responsible for causing rare genetic diseases such as Parkinson with precision and accuracy.

With advent of new technologies, we embark on the more ambitious project such as The Human Brain Project and The Human Longevity Project. Next, I will attempt to answer an important question about how to design drugs to treat diseases to save human life by using the information available from the Human Genome Project.

Is the secret hidden in the long string of four nucleotides text on a three-letter codon carrying 24,000 genes in 46 chromosomes in our genome containing six billion four hundred million nucleotides?

Could we identify the genetic variants responsible for our diseases by comparing the whole-genome sequence of the centenarians with the

1000

Now, we must treat the old age common diseases such as cancers, cardiac diseases, and Alzheimer. To save human life from these dreadful diseases, we have to design drugs to shut off genes responsible for causing these old age diseases. Next, I will describe how I design drugs to shut off genes which cause brain cancer, glioblastomas. Similar rationale could be used to design drugs to shut off genes responsible for causing cardiovascular diseases and Alzheimer. Our genes are units of inheritance and carry instructions to make proteins, and when the proteins fold, they become reactive and carry out a specific function.

Hundreds of proteins interact to make a cell, and millions of cells interact to make a tissue.

Hundreds of tissues interact to make an organ, and several organs interact to make a human being. The instructions to make tissues are written in our genes. A defected tissue

could

By sequencing a fertilized egg, the genotype, we could identify the mutations responsible for future diseases in tissues, the phenotype. If a patient has a family history of a specific disease, to prevent future generation from inheriting the disease, it is best advice for such families to have conception by in vitro fertilization after making sure that the fertilized egg is free from all abnormal mutations responsible for causing the disease. Our entire genome, the book of our life, is written in four nucleotides, and they are A (adenine), T (thiamine), G (guanine), and C (cytosine). The chain of these nucleotides forms a double-stranded string of nucleotides, one strand is inherited from our mother and another from our father, running in opposite directions called the DNA (deoxyribonucleotide). According to Francis Crick’s Central Dogma [3], double-stranded DNA is transcribed into a single-stranded RNA which is translated in the ribosome into proteins.

The discovery of the double helical structure of DNA explained how the information to create life is stored, replicate, evolved, and passed on to the next generation.

This discovery opened a new world order of ideas and buried the old explanation of the magical mystical appearance of life on Earth. The double-stranded DNA explained that the essence of life is information and the information is located on these four nucleotides.

Every set of three nucleotides on the mRNA forms a codon which codes for a specific amino acid.

The four-letter text of nucleotides forms a three-letter codon which codes for an amino acid.

There are 64 different combinations of codons which codes for all 20 amino acids. Sequencing human genome identifies the number of nucleotides and the order in which they are arranged.

Less than 2% of our genome contains regulatory region, a piece of DNA, which controls the function of genes. More than 300 regulatory regions have been identified. More than 98% of our genome contains non-coding region used to be called the junk DNA which makes up to 60% of our entire genome.

The non-coding regions contains repetitive piece of DNA, which is tightly packed and mostly remain silent.

The sequencing of this region showed that the non-coding region is the part of viruses and bacteria picked up by our genome during the millions of years of our evolutionary process. During bacterial or viral infection, the non-coding DNA could unfold transcribing into RNA resulting into hazardous protein which could create potassium clavulanate tablets uses havoc for our health.

As I said above, out of four-letter text, that is A-T and G-C, and three letters code for an amino acid called the codon.

The starting codon in a gene is the codon AUG (instead of T nucleotide, we use U nucleotide because thiamin is converted to more water-soluble uracil), which codes for amino acid methionine. The starting codon is followed by a series of hundreds of codons which codes for different amino acids in different species. There are three stop codons, and they are AUG, UGG, and UGA. The longest chain is in a gene of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, a neurological disease whose chain extends to two and a half million codons.

Once a gene is identified, using restriction enzymes, like EcoR1, we can cut, paste, and copy all genes individually making a restriction site map.

Once a single gene is isolated, we could compare the sequence of this gene with the Thousand Genome Project to identify abnormal mutation responsible for the

disease

Let us examine the sequence of the genome of human egg and sperm. An

egg

When comparing the sequence of an egg or sperm with sequence of the 1000 eggs and sperms of different people, we notice changes.

These variants are mutations caused by radiations, chemical and environmental pollution, viral infection, or genetic inheritance resulting in rare diseases.

Once a bad gene is identified, sequencing will identify the abnormal nucleotide.

Now, we can design drug to bind to this nucleotide and shut off its function.

We present in the “Cancers” section below a novel drug design.

Using aziridines and carbamate how we design drugs to shut off these genes to restore health. Although we are allowed to shut off and remove bad genes, we are not allowed to introduce good genes in the egg and sperm to enhance the abilities of egg and sperm because modification introduced in the egg and sperm will pass on to the next 1000 generations. For this reason, germ line gene therapy is forbidden in all countries.

Are we to determine the quality of life of individuals who will not even be born before the century is over?

We cannot design novel drugs unless we find the abnormal mutations responsible for causing that disease.